Even Sand Isn’t Infinite

The number of grains of sand on a beach is a classic example of an “infinite” number, in the sense that it would be impossible to count. But sand itself isn’t infinite. Demand for sand is way up, around the world, because it’s a key ingredient for some boom industries like concrete for construction and fracking for oil and gas drilling. But even lowly sand plays a role in many ecosystems. I’ve been commenting about the global market for sand for more than a decade now (for example, here, here, and here), but for those who would like an introduction or an update to the topic, the UN Environmental Program has published “Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development” (April 2026). From the “Introduction”:

Sand, gravel, crushed rock and aggregates (hereinafter ‘sand resources’) are the most consumed solid materials on Earth (UNEP 2022). As fundamental ingredients in contemporary concrete and construction materials more broadly, sand has played — and continues to play — a central role in the built environment worldwide. Global demand for sand tripled between 2000 and 2020, fuelled by rapid population growth, urbanisation, and economic expansion (UNEP 2022). Since then, demand has remained stable but is projected to increase again. The global sand market was valued at USD 569.4 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at around 3% annually, driven by urbanisation and infrastructure development (IMARC 2024) and the material demands of climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts.

While recent debates on raw materials have focused on critical minerals for the energy transition, sand plays an equally strategic, yet far less recognised role. In fact, the scale of sand use vastly exceeds that of critical minerals: around 50 billion tonnes of sand are extracted every year, compared to the projected annual extraction of 30 million tonnes of critical minerals by 2030 under a Net Zero Emissions by 2050 scenario (IEA 2023). Even for renewable energy infrastructure, sand and gravel constitute the largest volume of materials. For instance, they represent about 70% of the total volume needed for wind farms (Aska et al. 2025).

Despite the significant scale of demand and extraction, there are no exact global figures on how much sand exists, how much is extracted, where, or for which uses. … Even less discussed or understood is how sand underpins both human development and natural ecosystems. As highlighted above, sand, once extracted, is indispensable for housing and infrastructure, which form the foundation of economic activity and growth. Yet in nature, sand creates habitats for numerous species, shapes rivers and coasts, supports food and water security, and contributes to climate resilience (Torres et al. 2017). These ecological functions make sand essential for conserving biodiversity and maintaining the ecosystem services upon which humanity depends.

For an economically-minded reader, like me, the report suffers from a lack of even localized data on prices. Within the US economy, however, the US Geological Survey reports that prices for “Sand and Gravel (Construction)” rose from $10.52 per metric ton in 2021 to $14.50 per metric ton in 2025, as total production dropped modestly. The lack of data makes it hard to draw broad conclusions, but there are certainly localized examples where extensive sand extraction harmed ecosystems, including in ways that affected industries like tourism and fishing. The report concludes:

The sand crisis is no longer hypothetical. Globally, shortages are already halting major infrastructure projects. Demand for sand in the building sector alone could rise by 45 per cent by 2060 (Zhong et al. 2025). Yet unlike many environmental challenges where delayed action has led to escalating and irreversible costs, an opportunity for timely, coordinated intervention remains. Sand governance is ultimately a development choice.